Encyclopedia article
Immigration to the United States
Overview of immigration to the United States: law, history, population data, enforcement, economic and social effects, and public debate
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43 claims checked
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Checked by GPT-6.1 Sol and Grok 4.7, each without seeing the other’s answers.
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A claim is stated as fact only when both checkers confirm it from the cited sources; a split verdict is published with attribution, and a claim neither can confirm is cut.
See every claimImmigration has been a major source of population growth and cultural change in the United States throughout much of its history, and the country has the world's largest immigrant population in absolute terms 1. A Pew Research Center analysis of Census Bureau data estimated a record 53.3 million immigrants, or 15.8% of residents, in January 2025, falling to 51.9 million by June 2025, the first decline since the 1960s 3. U.S. policy is governed largely by the Immigration and Nationality Act (INA), first codified in 1952, and covers both the admission of foreign nationals and enforcement and removal 2. Immigration has also been historically contentious, and in recent decades it has been viewed through an increasingly partisan lens 7.
Legal framework and definitions
#U.S. immigration policy is governed largely by the Immigration and Nationality Act, first codified in 1952 and amended significantly several times since 2. It has two major aspects: facilitating the migration of foreign nationals into the country, and immigration enforcement and removal 2. Congress authorizes immigration functions in the INA and other laws, and several executive branch departments and agencies carry them out 2.
In Census-based statistics, the foreign-born population consists of people living in the United States who were not U.S. citizens at birth 12. Wikipedia's 2017 breakdown of this population lists naturalized citizens (45%, or 20.7 million), lawful permanent residents (27%, or 12.3 million), temporary lawful residents (6%, or 2.2 million) and unauthorized residents (23%, or 10.5 million) 1.
History to 1965
#The 1790 census counted 3,929,214 people, of whom 17.8% were enslaved 1. The Naturalization Act of 1790 limited naturalization to free white persons 1.
Nearly 12 million immigrants arrived between 1870 and 1900 16. According to the Library of Congress, many were fleeing crop failure, land and job shortages, rising taxes or famine, while others sought personal freedom or relief from political and religious persecution 16. More than 70% of all immigrants entered through New York City, and the federal government opened an immigration processing center on Ellis Island in 1892 16.
The Library of Congress attributes the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 to economic competition for jobs, racial suspicion and hatred, and anti-Chinese riots and pressure, especially in California 16. Wikipedia says the act banned virtually all immigration from China until its repeal in 1943 1. The Library of Congress says it virtually ended Chinese immigration for nearly a century 16.
Wikipedia says that between 1921 and 1965 policies such as the National Origins Formula limited immigration and naturalization opportunities for people from areas outside Northwestern Europe 1. The Migration Policy Institute says the restrictive laws of 1921 and 1924 limited permanent immigration almost exclusively to arrivals from Northern and Western Europe 13. Combined with the Great Depression and the onset of World War II, this led to a sharp drop in immigration from the Eastern Hemisphere 13. In 1970, 9.6 million immigrants made up a record-low 4.7% of U.S. residents 13.
Wikipedia reports approximately 400,000 Mexican repatriations in the 1930s, about half of them involving U.S. citizens 1.
Since 1965
#The Hart–Celler Act of 1965 abolished national-origin quotas 1. Wikipedia says an immigration reform signed in 1986 gave amnesty to 3 million undocumented immigrants, and that the Immigration Act of 1990 increased legal immigration by 40% 1.
In the post-9/11 era, lawmakers made multiple attempts to pass comprehensive legislation that traded increased enforcement for paths to legal status, but these efforts failed repeatedly, most notably in 2006, 2007 and 2013 7. The Migration Policy Institute describes Republicans as increasingly focused solely on enforcement and Democrats as motivated chiefly by legalization, and says hopes of a legislative compromise have faded 7. It also says legal immigration has become a point of increasing political contention 7.
In June 2024, President Joe Biden announced new restrictions on asylum applications, which Pew says led to a sharp decline in border encounters with immigrants seeking asylum protections 3.
Population and flows
#Estimates of the immigrant population differ by survey and date. The American Community Survey (ACS) estimated 47.8 million foreign-born residents in 2023, or 14.3% of the population 12. The Migration Policy Institute put the 2024 figure at more than 50.2 million, or 14.8% of a population of 340.1 million, an increase of more than 2.4 million from 2023 13. Pew's analysis of Census Bureau data estimated 53.3 million (15.8%) in January 2025 and 51.9 million (15.4%) in June 2025, saying more immigrants left the country or were deported than arrived in the interval 3.
Sources describe the historical peak share differently. The Congressional Research Service reports a range from a high of 14.8% in 1890 to a low of 4.7% in 1970 12. The Migration Policy Institute says the 2024 share matched the record set in 1890 13. Pew describes the January 2025 share of 15.8% as the highest on record 3.
Wikipedia reports that 17% of all international migrants resided in the United States while the country held about 4% of the global population in 2024 1. It also reports that immigrants and their U.S.-born children numbered more than 93 million people, or 28% of the population, in 2024 1.
Pew estimated that more than 11 million immigrants arrived between 2020 and 2025, including more than 3 million in 2023 3. A Congressional Budget Office estimate cited by Rice University's Baker Institute put net immigration in 2023 at approximately 3.2 million, up from an average of about 900,000 a year between 2010 and 2020 6. Mexico was the largest origin country for arrivals between 2021 and 2023, at about 11%, followed by India (8%), Venezuela (7%), Cuba (6%) and Colombia (5%) 3.
Typically about 1 million people become lawful permanent residents each fiscal year 12. In FY2023, 1.2 million did so, 48% as new arrivals and 52% by adjusting from a nonimmigrant status within the country 12. The largest number are admitted through family-sponsored categories, followed by employment-based categories, grants of refugee status and asylum, and the diversity visa program 12. In FY2023, 877,770 people naturalized 12.
According to the OECD's International Migration Outlook 2025, the United States received 1,425,000 new immigrants on a long-term or permanent basis, including changes of status, which was 20% more than in 2023 14. The OECD says the figure comprises 68% family members, 17% humanitarian migrants and 6% labour migrants 14. The excerpt available does not state the reporting year, and this figure could not be independently confirmed against the other sources used here 14.
Estimates of the unauthorized population vary widely. Wikipedia cites an August 2025 Pew report putting the unauthorized population at a record 14 million in 2023 1. It also reports that the Federation for American Immigration Reform (FAIR) estimated about 18.6 million in March 2025 1.
Enforcement and processing, 2025–2026
#Pew reports that President Donald Trump took 181 executive actions on immigration in his first 100 days after returning to office in January 2025, intended to curtail new arrivals and deport noncitizens 3. Pew said the full effects remained to be seen but that the actions were already contributing to a declining immigrant population, especially the unauthorized population 3. According to Wikipedia, the State Department announced on January 14, 2026 that it was suspending visa processing for 75 nations; this rests on a single source 1.
In a finding published in the Federal Register on September 21, 2026, the Department of Homeland Security stated that circumstances endanger the lives, property, safety or welfare of residents of all 50 states, that an actual or imminent mass influx of aliens is arriving at the southern border, and that this requires a continued federal response 11. The notice quotes Proclamation 10888 as saying that from 2020 to 2024 "at least 8 million illegal aliens were encountered along the southern border" and that "countless millions more evaded detection and illegally entered the United States" 11. The notice counts encounters and does not quantify the number it says evaded detection 11. This is the position of the issuing administration, and the sources here include no independent assessment of it.
The Guardian reported in September 2026 that ICE was arresting more people than ever using less visible tactics, and that policy changes had made it easier to end protections for a total of about 1.3 million immigrants from countries designated for temporary protected status 10.
The American Immigration Council, which publishes the USCIS Immigration Filing Trends Dashboard on which this reporting is based, said pending USCIS cases rose from 9.7 million in FY2025 Q1 to 11.3 million in FY2026 Q1 9. In FY2026 Q1, USCIS received 33.6% fewer applications and completed 40.8% fewer cases than a year earlier 9. The Council interprets higher denial rates, larger caseloads and longer processing times across 2024 and 2025 as a broader shift in USCIS processing rather than normal quarter-to-quarter variation 9.
Economic effects
#The Economic Policy Institute argues that immigration expands U.S. gross domestic product and is good for growth, and that immigration overall has led to better wages and work opportunities for U.S.-born workers 5. It also argues that when immigrants are denied full labor and employment rights, including when their immigration status is used against them, it makes immigrant workers' lives more precarious and can harm co-workers in the same industries 5.
Wikipedia states that some data suggest low-skilled immigration adversely affects low-skilled natives 1. The EPI and Wikipedia positions therefore differ in emphasis on how immigration affects native workers 15.
Wikipedia reports that a Cato Institute white paper found immigrants generated a $14.5 trillion fiscal surplus from 1994 to 2023, in 2024 dollars 1. The available excerpt does not describe the paper's methodology, and the figure rests on this single source 1.
Pew estimated that immigrants made up 20% of the U.S. labor force in January 2025 and 19% in June 2025, a fall of more than 750,000 workers 3.
Social effects
#Wikipedia states that studies show immigrants have lower crime rates than natives in the United States 1. Some officials advocate restrictions on public-safety and welfare grounds, as in the September 2026 Department of Homeland Security finding 11. These claims concern the effects of an influx on residents' safety and welfare and should be distinguished from research measuring crime rates 111.
The Library of Congress describes social tensions in the late 19th century immigrant experience. It says employers often took advantage of immigrants, who were generally paid less than other workers, and that many were stereotyped, discriminated against, and subjected to verbal and physical abuse 16. It also says large-scale immigration produced new vitality in the cities and states where immigrants settled 16.
Public opinion and debate
#A February 2024 Gallup poll found that 28% of Americans considered immigration the top problem facing the country 4. A separate Gallup poll that month found that a majority of respondents felt illegal immigration was a "critical" threat to U.S. national security 4. An April Pew Research Center poll cited by the Council on Foreign Relations found that about 60% of registered voters believed undocumented immigrants currently in the country should be allowed to stay, with 36% saying they should have the opportunity to apply for citizenship 4. The Council on Foreign Relations adds that a large majority of Americans still consider immigration overall good for the country 4.
Wikipedia reports that Pew tracking found the share of Americans calling immigrants a burden fell from 63% in 1994 to 27% 1.
Supporters of tighter enforcement cite border encounters and security concerns 411. Advocates of broader admissions and legalization, such as the Economic Policy Institute, point to economic contributions and to polling showing support for allowing long-resident undocumented immigrants to stay 45. The sources used here do not provide detailed evidence on the effects of enforcement on deterrence, compliance or cost, and they do not cover the experiences of immigrant families or origin countries.
Scripture
Passages quoted from the King James Version. The text is fetched, never written by a model.
And if a stranger sojourn with thee in your land, ye shall not vex him. But the stranger that dwelleth with you shall be unto you as one born among you, and thou shalt love him as thyself; for ye were strangers in the land of Egypt: I am the LORD your God.
Thou shalt neither vex a stranger, nor oppress him: for ye were strangers in the land of Egypt.
For the LORD your God is God of gods, and Lord of lords, a great God, a mighty, and a terrible, which regardeth not persons, nor taketh reward: He doth execute the judgment of the fatherless and widow, and loveth the stranger, in giving him food and raiment. Love ye therefore the stranger: for ye were strangers in the land of Egypt.
When the Son of man shall come in his glory, and all the holy angels with him, then shall he sit upon the throne of his glory: And before him shall be gathered all nations: and he shall separate them one from another, as a shepherd divideth his sheep from the goats: And he shall set the sheep on his right hand, but the goats on the left. Then shall the King say unto them on his right hand, Come, ye blessed of my Father, inherit the kingdom prepared for you from the foundation of the world: For I was an hungred, and ye gave me meat: I was thirsty, and ye gave me drink: I was a stranger, and ye took me in: Naked, and ye clothed me: I was sick, and ye visited me: I was in prison, and ye came unto me. Then shall the righteous answer him, saying, Lord, when saw we thee an hungred, and fed thee? or thirsty, and gave thee drink? When saw we thee a stranger, and took thee in? or naked, and clothed thee? Or when saw we thee sick, or in prison, and came unto thee? And the King shall answer and say unto them, Verily I say unto you, Inasmuch as ye have done it unto one of the least of these my brethren, ye have done it unto me.
Sources
- 1.Immigration to the United States — Wikipedia (opens in a new tab)
en.wikipedia.orgWikipedia (CC BY-SA 4.0)
- 2.
- 3.
- 4.
- 5.
- 6.Decoding Recent Immigration to the US (opens in a new tab)
bakerinstitute.org
- 7.Immigration Has Been a Defining, Often Contentious ... (opens in a new tab)
migrationpolicy.org
- 8.
- 9.
- 10.
- 11.Federal Register :: Finding of Mass Influx of Aliens (opens in a new tab)
federalregister.gov
- 12.
- 13.Frequently Requested Statistics on Immigrants (opens in a new tab)
migrationpolicy.org
- 14.
- 15.
- 16.
- 17.The Economic and Fiscal Consequences of Immigration (2017) (opens in a new tab)
nap.nationalacademies.org
- 18.Statistics on US Immigration: An Assessment of Data ... (opens in a new tab)
nationalacademies.org
- 19.Immigration Data Matters (opens in a new tab)
migrationpolicy.org
Truth Ledger
Every checkable claim in the draft, checked by GPT-6.1 Sol and Grok 4.7. A claim is stated as fact only when both checkers confirm it from the cited sources; a split verdict is published with attribution, and a claim neither can confirm is cut.
Showing 43 claims.
- Verified
Pew estimated 53.3 million immigrants lived in the U.S. in January 2025, 15.8% of residents, a record.
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Source [3] gives 53.3 million and 15.8% for January 2025, both record highs. / Pew: 53.3 million immigrants in January 2025, 15.8%, both record highs.
Cites3
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Pew estimated 51.9 million immigrants (15.4%) in June 2025, the first decline in the foreign-born population since the 1960s.
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Source [3] gives June 2025 figures of 51.9 million and 15.4%, describing the first decline since the 1960s. / Pew: 51.9 million (15.4%) in June 2025; first foreign-born decline since the 1960s.
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The Immigration and Nationality Act was first codified in 1952 and has been amended significantly since.
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Source [2] explicitly states the INA was first codified in 1952 and significantly amended several times. / CRS says the INA was first codified in 1952 and amended significantly since.
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U.S. immigration policy has two major aspects: facilitating migration and enforcement and removal.
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Source [2] identifies facilitating migration flows and immigration enforcement and removal as the two major aspects. / CRS describes facilitation of migration and enforcement/removal as the two major aspects.
Cites2
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The foreign-born population consists of people living in the U.S. who were not U.S. citizens at birth.
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Source [12] explicitly defines the foreign-born population this way. / CRS defines foreign-born as U.S. residents who were not citizens at birth.
Cites12
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The ACS estimated 47.8 million foreign-born residents in 2023, 14.3% of the population.
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Source [12] reports the ACS estimates of 47.8 million and 14.3% for 2023. / ACS 2023: 47.8 million foreign-born residents, 14.3% of the population.
Cites12
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More than 50.2 million immigrants lived in the U.S. in 2024, 14.8% of a population of 340.1 million.
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Source [13] explicitly reports these figures for 2024. / MPI: more than 50.2 million immigrants in 2024, 14.8% of 340.1 million.
Cites13
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In 1970, 9.6 million immigrants made up a record-low 4.7% of U.S. residents.
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Source [13] explicitly gives 9.6 million and a record-low 4.7% in 1970. / MPI: 9.6 million immigrants in 1970 were a record-low 4.7% of residents.
Cites13
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The Naturalization Act of 1790 limited naturalization to free white persons.
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Source [1] states that the Naturalization Act of 1790 limited naturalization to free white persons. / Wikipedia states the 1790 Act limited naturalization to free white persons.
Cites1
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The 1790 census counted 3,929,214 people, 17.8% of whom were enslaved.
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Source [1] gives the 1790 census population as 3,929,214 and the enslaved share as 17.8%. / Source gives the 1790 count as 3,929,214 and says 17.8% were enslaved.
Cites1
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Nearly 12 million immigrants arrived between 1870 and 1900.
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Source [16] explicitly states that nearly 12 million immigrants arrived between 1870 and 1900. / Library of Congress: nearly 12 million immigrants arrived between 1870 and 1900.
Cites16
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Ellis Island opened in 1892 and more than 70% of immigrants in the late 1800s entered through New York City.
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Source [16] reports the 1892 opening of Ellis Island and that more than 70% of immigrants entered through New York City. / Source says Ellis Island opened in 1892 and over 70% entered through New York City.
Cites16
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The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 banned virtually all Chinese immigration until its repeal in 1943.
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Source [1] describes virtually all immigration from China as banned from 1882 until repeal in 1943. / Wikipedia: the 1882 Act banned virtually all Chinese immigration until repeal in 1943.
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The 1921 and 1924 laws limited permanent immigration almost exclusively to Northern and Western Europeans.
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Source [13] explicitly describes the 1921 and 1924 laws as limiting permanent immigration almost exclusively to Northern and Western Europeans. / MPI says the 1921 and 1924 laws limited permanent immigration almost exclusively to Northern and Western Europe.
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About 400,000 Mexicans were repatriated in the 1930s, half of them U.S. citizens.
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Source [1] reports approximately 400,000 Mexican repatriations during this period, half involving U.S. citizens. / Wikipedia: about 400,000 Mexicans were repatriated; half were U.S. citizens.
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The 1965 Hart–Celler Act abolished national-origin quotas.
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Source [1] explicitly states that the 1965 Hart–Celler Act abolished national-origin quotas. / Wikipedia says the 1965 Hart–Celler Act abolished national-origin quotas.
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The 1986 reform granted amnesty to about 3 million undocumented immigrants.
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Source [1] states that the immigration reform signed in 1986 gave amnesty to 3 million undocumented immigrants. / Wikipedia says the 1986 reform gave amnesty to 3 million undocumented immigrants.
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The Immigration Act of 1990 increased legal immigration by 40%.
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Source [1] explicitly attributes a 40% increase in legal immigration to the Immigration Act of 1990. / Wikipedia says the Immigration Act of 1990 increased legal immigration by 40%.
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Comprehensive immigration reform efforts failed in 2006, 2007 and 2013.
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Source [7] identifies 2006, 2007 and 2013 as notable years when comprehensive immigration reform efforts failed. / MPI says comprehensive immigration efforts failed notably in 2006, 2007, and 2013.
Cites7
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In June 2024 President Biden announced new restrictions on asylum applications.
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Source [3] explicitly dates Biden’s announcement of new asylum application restrictions to June 2024. / Pew says Biden announced new asylum-application restrictions in June 2024.
Cites3
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President Trump took 181 executive actions on immigration in his first 100 days after returning to office in 2025.
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Source [3] reports 181 immigration executive actions during Trump’s first 100 days after his January 2025 return. / Pew: Trump took 181 immigration executive actions in his first 100 days after returning in 2025.
Cites3
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More than 11 million immigrants arrived between 2020 and 2025, including more than 3 million in 2023.
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Source [3] explicitly reports more than 11 million arrivals between 2020 and 2025, including more than 3 million in 2023. / Pew: more than 11 million arrived in 2020–2025, including over 3 million in 2023.
Cites3
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A CBO estimate put 2023 net immigration at about 3.2 million versus about 900,000 a year in 2010–2020.
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Source [6] gives the CBO estimate of approximately 3.2 million in 2023 versus an annual average of about 900,000 during 2010–2020. / Baker Institute cites CBO: about 3.2 million net immigration in 2023 versus about 900,000 yearly in 2010–2020.
Cites6
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Mexico was the largest origin country for 2021–2023 arrivals at about 11%.
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Source [3] identifies Mexico as the largest origin country for 2021–2023 arrivals, accounting for about 11%. / Pew: Mexico was the top origin for 2021–2023 arrivals, about 11%.
Cites3
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About 1.2 million people obtained LPR status in FY2023, 48% new arrivals and 52% adjustments of status.
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Source [12] explicitly reports 1.2 million FY2023 LPR grants, with 48% new arrivals and 52% status adjustments. / CRS: 1.2 million obtained LPR status in FY2023; 48% new arrivals, 52% adjustments.
Cites12
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877,770 people naturalized in FY2023.
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Source [12] gives 877,770 naturalizations in FY2023. / CRS states 877,770 people naturalized in FY2023.
Cites12
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About 25 million naturalized citizens made up 52% of the foreign-born population in 2023.
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Source [12] reports approximately 25 million naturalized citizens, representing 52% of the foreign-born population in 2023. / CRS: about 25 million naturalized citizens were 52% of the 2023 foreign-born population.
Cites12
- Disputed
The OECD counted 1,425,000 long-term or permanent immigrants to the U.S. in 2024, 20% more than in 2023.
Published with attribution: the checkers split.
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Source [14] gives 1,425,000 and a 20% increase over 2023, but the provided excerpt does not explicitly identify 2024 as the reporting year. / OECD reports 1,425,000 long-term or permanent immigrants, 20% more than in 2023.
Cites14
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Pew estimated a record 14 million unauthorized immigrants in 2023.
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Source [1] attributes the record 14 million unauthorized immigrant estimate for 2023 to an August 2025 Pew report. / Wikipedia cites an August 2025 Pew report of a record 14 million unauthorized immigrants in 2023.
Cites1
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FAIR estimated about 18.6 million illegal immigrants in March 2025.
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Source [1] explicitly attributes the March 2025 estimate of approximately 18.6 million to FAIR. / Wikipedia: FAIR estimated about 18.6 million illegal immigrants in March 2025.
Cites1
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A September 2026 DHS finding said at least 8 million illegal aliens were encountered at the southern border from 2020 to 2024.
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Source [11], dated September 2026, quotes at least 8 million southern-border encounters from 2020 to 2024. / The September 21, 2026 finding quotes at least 8 million southern-border encounters from 2020 to 2024.
Cites11
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The Guardian reported policy changes made it easier to end TPS for about 1.3 million immigrants.
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Source [10] explicitly reports that changes made it easier to end TPS protections for about 1.3 million immigrants. / Guardian: changes made it easier to end TPS protections for about 1.3 million immigrants.
Cites10
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Pending USCIS cases rose from 9.7 million in FY2025 Q1 to 11.3 million in FY2026 Q1.
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Source [9] explicitly reports pending cases rising from 9.7 million to 11.3 million between these fiscal-year quarters. / Council: pending cases rose from 9.7 million in FY2025 Q1 to 11.3 million in FY2026 Q1.
Cites9
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The State Department announced on January 14, 2026 it was suspending visa processing for 75 nations.
- Grok 4.7:Supported
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Source [1] explicitly gives January 14, 2026 and 75 nations for the State Department announcement. / Wikipedia: State Department announced on January 14, 2026 a visa-processing suspension for 75 nations.
Cites1
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The Economic Policy Institute says immigration has led to better wages and job opportunities for U.S.-born workers.
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Source [5] states that immigration overall has improved wages and work opportunities for U.S.-born workers. / EPI says immigration overall led to better wages and work opportunities for U.S.-born workers.
Cites5
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Some data suggest low-skilled immigration adversely affects low-skilled natives.
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Source [1] explicitly says some data suggest adverse effects of low-skilled immigration on low-skilled natives. / Wikipedia says data suggest low-skilled immigration adversely affects low-skilled natives.
Cites1
- Verified
A Cato Institute white paper found immigrants generated a $14.5 trillion fiscal surplus from 1994 to 2023.
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Source [1] attributes a $14.5 trillion fiscal surplus during 1994–2023 to a Cato white paper; the amount is in 2024 dollars. / Wikipedia cites a Cato paper finding a $14.5 trillion fiscal surplus over 1994–2023, in 2024 dollars.
Cites1
- Verified
Immigrants were 19% of the U.S. labor force in June 2025, down from 20% in January.
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Source [3] reports immigrants’ labor-force share falling from 20% in January to 19% in June 2025. / Pew: immigrants were 19% of the labor force in June 2025, down from 20% in January.
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Studies show immigrants have lower crime rates than natives in the U.S.
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Source [1] explicitly states that studies show lower crime rates among immigrants than natives in the United States. / Wikipedia says studies show immigrants have lower crime rates than U.S. natives.
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A February 2024 Gallup poll found 28% of Americans considered immigration the top problem.
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Source [4] reports that 28% considered immigration the top problem in a February 2024 Gallup poll. / CFR cites a February 2024 Gallup poll finding 28% named immigration the top problem.
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About 60% of registered voters in an April Pew poll said undocumented immigrants should be allowed to stay.
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Source [4] reports approximately 60% support among registered voters for allowing undocumented immigrants to stay in an April Pew poll. / CFR: an April Pew poll found about 60% of registered voters said undocumented immigrants should be allowed to stay.
Cites4
- Verified
Pew tracking found the share calling immigrants a burden fell from 63% in 1994 to 27%.
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Source [1] explicitly reports Pew tracking a decline from 63% calling immigrants a burden in 1994 to 27%. / Wikipedia says Pew tracked the share calling immigrants a burden falling from 63% in 1994 to 27%.
Cites1
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 licence. Written by Claude Opus 5.5 from the sources listed and checked claim by claim by GPT-6.1 Sol and Grok 4.7.